Let’s review.

Shakespeare’s history plays, at least those addressing the conflict we know as the Hundred Years’ War, can be roughly divided into two tetralogies: the first consisting of Richard II, the two parts of Henry IV and Henry V; and the second tetralogy containing the three parts of Henry VI and Richard III. In a very real sense this period of history was the birth of modern Europe, as the people living in England and France began to see themselves as separate cultures, and to develop the national identities they have today.

At the same time, however, England was dealing with another key conflict, the War of the Roses. Henry IV had seized the throne from Richard II, a very weak king, and passed it on to his son Henry V, a strong king. Unfortunately Henry V reigned for only nine years, and the crown has now passed to his son Henry VI, a very nice man who unfortunately had none of his forebears’ talents for leadership.  

Into this power vacuum steps Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York. Prior to his being deposed by Henry IV, Richard II had appointed his cousin Edmund, Earl of March, to be his successor. Plantagenet’s mother was the sister of Edmund, and on this basis he pressed his claim to the throne. Those who sided with the House of York wore a white rose as an emblem. Those supporting the Lancaster faction of Henry wore instead a red rose. For a reminder of the history of the Hundred Years’ War and the War of the Roses, see the articles at the end of this page.

 As Part 2 ended, York and his white rose faction had won a great victory over the Lancastrians at the battle of St. Albans, although the king was able to escape. York’s younger son Richard (the future hunch-backed King Richard III) had really distinguished himself in the fight. (Side note: does it seem as strange to you as it does to me that a hunchback with a withered hand could be a war hero in the days of sword fighting? In fact, Richard had neither a hump nor a withered hand. He suffered merely from a slight curvature of the spine, called scoliosis, as his recently-exhumed corpse confirms. More on that later.) Those supporting King Henry are Northumberland, Exeter, Westmoreland and Lord Clifford, while York’s followers include Warwick and Montague. Realizing how weak a king he is, Henry’s queen Margaret has abandoned him and begun acting in her own behalf, to assure a future for her son Edward.

It may surprise you, as it surprised me, that the plays in the Henry VI trilogy may not have originated with Shakespeare. It is likely that the neophyte playwright was merely tasked with revising an existing trilogy from an older writer, in this case Robert Greene. A few years later, on his deathbed, the jealous Greene lashed out at this impudent actor who had usurped his place. In doing so, he provided us with uncharacteristic evidence of when the play was written.

Robert Greene’s pamphlet A Groatsworth of Wit (September 1592) mocks an otherwise unnamed rival as “an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers … [and] is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.” This alone is enough to indicate that the target of his wrath was Shakespeare, but the sentence also parodies a line from 3 Henry VI ‘tiger’s heart wrapped in a woman’s hide’: “… that with his ‘tiger’s heart wrapped in a player’s hide’, supposes that he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you ….”

Case closed. This evidence proves that 3 Henry VI existed in a form recognizable to Shakespeare fans by September 1592, when Greene died. Furthermore, it must have been staged prior to June of that year, when the theatres were shut down during an outbreak of plague. (We who lived through the COVID years can sympathize.) Therefore, it had to have been written in either 1591 or early 1592. In any case, although he also wrote Comedy of Errors and possibly Taming of the Shrew at around the same time, it was the success of the Henry trilogy that firmly established Shakespeare’s reputation as a playwright.

As with most of his chronicle history plays, Shakespeare’s primary source was Edward Hall’s The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York, but he also consulted Raphael Holinshed’s Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland. This may seem redundant to readers of both histories, as Holinshed took much of his information on the Wars of the Roses from Hall; some portions word for word. However, there are sufficient differences between Hall and Holinshed to establish that Shakespeare consulted both.

There are other references which will trigger a nod of recognition from true Shakespeare fans. Sackville and Norton’s Gorboduc (1561), which Shakespeare also used as a source for King Lear, contains a scene similar to Act Two scene 5 in which a son unknowingly kills his father, and a father unknowingly kills his son.

Also, Margaret’s pep talk to her army in Act 5, scene 4 is taken almost verbatim from Arthur Brooke’s 1562 work The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet (I hope I don’t have to tell you the other play that one inspired!)   

While dramatically potent, the exploits of Richard son of York (the future Richard III), in particular his conduct in battle, are historically impossible. At the time of these events, he was only about ten years old. Likewise, the dramatic depiction of the death of Rutland in Act One is inaccurate; in fact, it seems likely that Shakespeare body-swapped the characters of Rutland and Richard, at least as far as their ages. Rutland was actually the second oldest son of York, only one year younger than Edward, while Richard was the youngest son, more than ten years younger.

While the historical Clifford did slay the historical Rutland, the latter was already seventeen years old, and participating in the battle of Wakefield as a soldier. At the time Richard was a mere child and, as stated before, was not a hunchback. He did, however, have one shoulder slightly higher than the other, as a result of scoliosis, proven by an examination of his recently exhumed skeleton. Furthermore, the tales of having been born a freak with fully formed teeth and long hair are not supported by any actual evidence, and must be considered merely post-mortem propaganda meant to delegitimize his reign, thereby boosting the standing of his successors, the Tudors.

On the other hand, Shakespeare practically serves as a spin doctor for Henry VI. Henry’s inadequacy as a monarch is explained dramatically as merely being pious, as well as too nice. In fact, the historical Henry suffered from mental illness and was for long periods of his life confined by his queen and advisors. The scenes in which Margaret assumes the duties of both court and battlefield were not poetic license on the part of our Bard. They actually happened. It’s little wonder that Plantagenet saw this mismanagement of the kingdom and decided that he could do better. For all his antagonism against Richard III, Shakespeare in a very real sense whitewashes the historical flaws of Henry.

In Act Two, the sons of York witness a meteorological phenomenon known as “parhelion”: three suns in the sky at the same time. This was caused by ice crystals in the atmosphere creating a halo around the sun, with refracted light concentrated on either side. Of course, to a superstitious people about to participate in a battle, this can be seen as a divine omen: for the Yorks, a positive one.

Prince Edward and Clarence being so eager to marry one of Warwick’s daughters is understandable once you understand the level of influence Warwick had. Richard Neville, the 16th Earl of Warwick, was the wealthiest and most powerful English nobleman of his age. He was indispensable in the deposing of not one but two kings, Henry VI and Edward IV, and for this reason is better known to history as “Warwick the Kingmaker”. Being linked to his family by marriage would have been highly desirable for any politically ambitious nobleman. Following the death of Prince Edward, Richard York wasted no time in marrying Anne Neville himself; she is the Lady Anne of Richard III.

Since there are several characters with the same names, they will be represented here according to this code:

• Richard the Duke of York will be known as Plantagenet
• His son Richard, the future King Richard III, will be known as Richard York, or Gloucester
• Plantagenet’s son Edward, the future King Edward IV, will be known as Edward York, or King Edward
• Edward son of Henry VI will be known as Prince Edward

Summary

Act 1

 scene 1  

Plantagenet and his sons discuss their latest victory. Richard York in particular acquitted himself well. They pressure Henry for Plantagenet’s right to the throne. As a compromise, the king makes Plantagenet his heir to the throne. Queen Margaret and Prince Edward are furious at Henry for disinheriting their son. Margaret decides to command an army out of the north herself against the Yorkists.  

 scene 2  

Despite the compromise, Plantagenet agrees to do battle once again with the king and his followers. They prepare to fight against Queen Margaret’s forces.

 scene 3  

Plantagenet ‘s young son Edmund, Earl of Rutland, is captured by Clifford, who kills him as revenge for Plantagenet killing his father.  

 scene 4  

Margaret captures Plantagenet, taunts him for his losses, and mocks him for his dream of being king by placing a paper crown on his head. She kills him and orders his head to be put on display at the gates of York.

Act 2

scene 1

Edward York and Richard York search for their father on the battlefield. They see an amazing sight in the sky: three suns which then come together to form one single sun. They interpret this as meaning that the three remaining sons of Plantagenet will unite to rule the world. When they learn of their father’s death, they agree to combine their forces to overthrow Henry and crown Edward York king.  

 scene 2

Henry feels pity for Plantagenet’s death, while Margaret is defiantly proud of herself. The rebels arrive, and Edward immediately demands to be crowned king. The Lancasters refuse, so both sides prepare to do battle.

 scene 3

Richard York inspires his brothers to fight more bravely.

 scene 4

Richard York and Clifford meet in the battlefield. Both vow revenge upon one another: Clifford for his father’s death and Richard York for the death of Rutland.

 scene 5  

A pointed examination of the tragic nature of civil war: A Lancastrian takes off the helmet of the soldier he has just killed and realizes it was his own father; a Yorkist soldier discovers that he has just killed his own son.  

 scene 6

Clifford dies, with an arrow in his neck. Warwick goes to France to arrange a marriage between Edward York and Lady Bona, the French king’s sister-in-law. Edward York gives dukedoms to his brothers: Richard York doesn’t want to be Duke of Gloucester, since that title has a bad historical reputation.

Act 3

scene 1

Two gamekeepers capture Henry, trying to escape. They recognize him as the former king in disguise and turn him over to his enemies.  

Act 3

 scene 2  

The new King Edward IV grants an audience to a beautiful widow, Elizabeth Grey, asking that her late husband’s lands be returned to her. By the end of the conversation he has fallen in love with her, and asks her to be his queen.  Gloucester confesses to the audience that he intends to seize the crown of England for himself.

  scene 3  

Queen Margaret and Prince Edward ask the French king Louis for his aid in the war; Warwick argues for Louis’ sister Lady Bona to marry King Edward as a sign of his support for the Yorks. Louis at first agrees to marry off Bona to King Edward, until a messenger brings news of King Edward’s proposed marriage to Lady Grey. Warwick is so embarrassed by this reversal that he switches sides. Louis agrees to give aid to Margaret, and Warwick agrees to marry his daughter to Prince Edward.

Act 4

scene 1  

Clarence and Gloucester criticize King Edward for marrying Elizabeth, but he doesn’t care. King Edward feels confident of his chances of victory over the forces of Louis, Margaret and Warwick. Clarence and Somerset decide to join the Lancastrians.  

  scene 2

Warwick and Oxford plan their battle. They welcome the arrival of Clarence and Somerset, and Warwick agrees that Clarence shall marry his youngest daughter.  

  scene 3  

Warwick and the other rebels attack and take King Edward prisoner, but Gloucester and Hastings escape. King Edward had promised that he will not sleep in a bed until the rebellion is subdued, but when he’s captured, he’s wearing a nightgown. Warwick insults Edward by calling him “duke” instead of “king”, and prepares to march to London to rescue Henry from prison.

  scene 4 

Elizabeth, pregnant with King Edward’s child, goes into hiding to escape capture at the hands of Warwick.

 scene 5  

Gloucester, Hastings and Stanley rescue Edward while he’s hunting on the grounds of the Archbishop of York.

  scene 6 

King Henry is freed from the Tower of London and appoints both Warwick and Clarence as protectors of the realm. Henry gives his blessing to the young Richmond (the future King Henry VII) and predicts (since this is Shakespeare, correctly) that he will one day save England. They learn that King Edward has escaped and fled to Burgundy.

  scene 7  

King Edward and Gloucester return to the city of York, claiming that he only wishes to assume his position as Duke of York. He rethinks this upon learning that Montgomery has an army ready to do battle for him. Further persuaded by Gloucester and Hastings, King Edward agrees to resume the war against Henry.  

  scene 8

King Henry’s freedom is short-lived. King Edward and Gloucester capture him again, and send him to the tower.

Act 5

scene 1

King Edward attacks Warwick at Coventry, and he announces that he has King Henry prisoner. Clarence betrays Warwick and rejoins the Yorkists. Warwick and King Edward prepare to battle at Barnet.

  scene 2  

Warwick dies. Oxford and Somerset flee.

  scene 3

King Edward and his brothers prepare to fight Margaret’s army arriving from France.

  scene 4

Both Margaret and King Edward deliver inspirational speeches to their armies. They fight, and Margaret is taken prisoner.

  scene 5  

Prince Edward is stabbed to death while Margaret is made to watch. Gloucester leaves for London, to kill Henry.

  scene 6

Gloucester kills Henry in the tower, but not before he prophesizes that the English people will rue the day that Gloucester was born. Gloucester then predicts that he will spread lies about his brother Edward’s children, and betray Clarence as well, to become King himself.

  scene 7  

King Edward recaps his many victories, celebrates his new son and heir and looks forward to more peaceful times in England … sadly unaware that his brother Gloucester has other plans.

(What follows is biographical information from Microsoft Encarta.)

Henry VI (of England) (1421-1471), king of England (1422-1461, 1470-1471), the last of the house of Lancaster.

The son of King Henry V and Queen Catherine of Valois, Henry was born at Windsor on December 6, 1421. He never showed any aptitude for government, and throughout his reign the English court was dominated by competing aristocratic factions. Like his father, he claimed the crown of France, but France gradually freed itself from English control between 1430 and 1453. In 1445 Henry married a French princess, Margaret of Anjou. During the 1450s a group of nobles sought to replace him with Richard, duke of York, the next in line of succession to the throne. The resulting civil conflict between the houses of Lancaster and York, known as the Wars of the Roses (see Roses, Wars of the), began in 1455. After intermittent fighting Henry was captured by the Yorkists at Northampton and was compelled to acknowledge Richard rather than his own infant son as successor. In 1460 Richard was killed by Henry’s forces at Wakefield. Richard’s son subsequently became leader of the Yorkists and proclaimed himself king as Edward IV.

Henry and his queen escaped to Scotland, where they remained until 1464. In that year he returned to take part in a rebellion against Edward but was captured (1465) and imprisoned in the Tower of London. He had suffered attacks of insanity all his life and was now completely incapacitated. Nevertheless, he became nominal ruler again in 1470. Dethroned the following year and returned to the tower by Edward, he died there on May 21, 1471, probably murdered on Edward’s order.

Henry, who founded Eton College and King’s College, University of Cambridge, was venerated by many as a saint because of his piety.

Hundred Years’ War, armed conflict between France and England during the years from 1337 to 1453. The Hundred Years’ War was a series of short conflicts, broken intermittently by a number of truces and peace treaties. It resulted from disputes between the ruling families of the two countries, the French Capetians and the English Plantagenets, over territories in France and the succession to the French throne.

In 1417 Henry V began the methodical conquest of Normandy and other parts of northwestern France. He met little resistance since many of the noblemen of Normandy had died in the massacre at Agincourt. Henry was aided by the forces of Philip the Good, the son of John the Fearless of Bourgogne. Philip sided with the advancing English after his father was murdered by forces loyal to the French king. In 1420 the French government was forced to sign the Treaty of Troyes, which disinherited the dauphin (the French heir to the throne), gave his sister Catherine to Henry V in marriage, and declared Henry the heir of Charles VI. Philip the Good accompanied the English king into Paris. In 1421 Henry and Catherine had a son, Henry VI. Like Edward III before him, he was the grandson of two kings but owed his French royal blood to his mother.

The Treaty of Troyes did not end the Lancastrian War, for much of central and southern France did not accept it; they supported the dauphin, who became Charles VII in 1422. Though still young, Henry V of England died in 1422, and Charles VI followed a few months later. The infant Henry VI was officially the king of both countries, and his uncle John, duke of Bedford, continued the English war effort in France, with the much-needed support of Philip the Good of Bourgogne. In 1424 the duke of Bedford defeated the French in battle at Verneuil, and in 1428 he besieged Orléans, an important city in central France.

THE END OF THE WAR In 1435, after lengthy peace negotiations with Charles VII, Philip the Good of Bourgogne abandoned his support of the English. Without the support of Philip’s forces, the English were unable to adequately hold their territory, and the tide of the war turned in favor of France, and the French regained Paris in 1436.

In addition, the French revived the stable coinage, regular taxes, and the standing army that had originated under Charles V but had disappeared during his son’s insanity. France also acquired superiority in the use of firearms, especially field artillery.These large, mobile cannons were capable of inflicting heavy damage, and they gave the French the same sort of military advantage that the longbow had given the English in the previous century.

In 1444 French conquests forced the English to agree to a truce. When that truce expired five years later, the remaining English possessions in France quickly fell into French hands. Artillery decided both the battle of Formigny (1450), which determined the fate of Normandy, and the battle of Castillon (1453), which ended English rule in Aquitaine. The battle of Castillon marked the end of the Hundred Years’ War. The English retained Calais in the far north until 1558, but were never again able to mount a serious threat to France.

The end of the Hundred Years’ War was also the end of a long period of economic trouble and declining population in both countries, to which the war had contributed. In France, the war encouraged the emergence of centralized governing institutions. In England, the loss of French territory forced the government to focus on domestic issues. By the end of the war both the French and English peoples began to view themselves as separate and distinctive nationalities, and not merely as members of a feudal empire.

Contributed By:
John Bell Henneman

Roses, Wars of the, series of dynastic civil wars in England fought by the rival houses of Lancaster and York between 1455 and 1485 (see Lancaster, House of; York, House of). The struggle was so named because the badge of the house of Lancaster was a red rose and that of the house of York a white rose. The initial opponents were the Lancastrian king of England Henry VI, aided by his queen, Margaret of Anjou, and Richard Plantagenet, 3rd duke of York. Because of the insanity of the king and military losses in France during the last phase of the Hundred Years’ War, the authority of the house of Lancaster was badly shaken. York asserted his claim to the throne in 1460, after having defeated the Lancastrian armies at St. Albans in 1455 and at Northampton in 1460. In the latter year York was defeated and killed at Wakefield. In 1461, however, his son was proclaimed king as Edward IV and shortly thereafter he decisively defeated Henry and Margaret, who then fled from England. In 1465 Henry was captured and imprisoned in the Tower of London.

The war was revived because of division within the Yorkist faction. Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, aided by George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence, younger brother of Edward, made an alliance with Margaret and led an invasion from France in 1470. Edward was driven into exile and Henry restored to the throne. In 1471, however, Edward returned and, aided by Clarence, defeated and killed Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. Shortly thereafter, the Lancastrians were totally defeated at the Battle of Tewkesbury, and Henry was murdered in the Tower.

After the death of Edward in 1483, his brother Richard usurped the throne, becoming king as Richard III, and the Lancastrians turned for leadership to Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who later became King Henry VII, founder of the Tudor dynasty. In 1485 the forces of Richard and Henry fought the decisive Battle of Bosworth Field, the last major encounter of the war. After Richard’s death in battle, Henry ascended the throne and married Edward’s daughter, thus uniting the houses. The chief result of the war was an increase in the power of the Crown. Battle and execution all but destroyed the old nobility, and the financial resources of the monarchy were strengthened by the confiscation of estates.